Resumen
El estatus epiléptico es una entidad clínica compleja, su identificación oportuna y tratamiento continúa siendo en la actualidad un reto dado su perfil de morbilidad y mortalidad. Recientemente se han realizado avances en el entendimiento de la fisiopatología, logrando así modificaciones en la clasificación y por ende en su manejo, mediante el desarrollo de ensayos clínicos y de laboratorio, lo que ha permitido mejorar la calidad de vida de los pacientes. El fin de este trabajo es realizar una revisión narrativa de la epidemiología, fisiopatología, diagnóstico y tratamiento del estatus epiléptico.
Citas
Beg JM, Anderson TD, Francis K, Meckley LM, Fitzhenry D, Foster T, et al. Burden of illness for super-refractory status epilepticus patients. J Med Econ. 2017;20(1):45-53.
Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia. 1981;22(4):489-501.
Lowenstein DH, Bleck T, Macdonald RL. It's time to revise the definition of status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 1999;40(1):120-2.
Trinka E, Cock H, Hesdorffer D5, Rossetti AO, Scheffer IE, Shinnar S, et al. A definition and classification of status epilepticus-Report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification of Status Epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2015;56(10):1515-23.
Seinfeld S, Goodkin HP, Shinnar S. Status Epilepticus. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2016; 6(3):a022830. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a022830
Dham BS, Hunter K, Rincon F. The epidemiology of status epi-lepticus in the United States. Neurocrit Care. 2014;20(3):476-83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-013-9935-x
Nishiyama I, Ohtsuka Y, Tsuda T, Kobayashi K, Inoue H, Narahara K, et al. An epidemiological study of children with status epilepticus in Okayama, Japan: incidence, etiologies, and outcomes. Epilepsy Res. 2011;96 (1-2):89-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.05.004
Skinner HJ, Dubon-Murcia SA, Thompson AR, Medina MT, Edwards JC, Nicholas JS, Holden KR. Adult convulsive status epilepticus in the developing country of Honduras. Seizure. 2010;19(6):363-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sei-zure.2010.05.007
Malek AM, Wilson DA, Martz GU, Wannamaker BB, Wagner JL, Smith G, et al. Mortality following status epilepticus in persons with and without epilepsy. Seizure. 2016;42:7-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2016.08.009
Neligan A, Shorvon SD. Frequency and prognosis of convulsive status epilepticus of different causes: a systematic review. Arch Neurol. 2010; 67(8):931-40. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurol.2010.169
Maldonado A, Ramos W, Perez J, Huaman LA, Gutierrez EL. Estado epiléptico convulsivo: características clínico-epidemiológicas y factores de riesgo en Perú. Neurologia 2010; 25 (8): 478-484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrl.2010.07.010
Zeng K, Wang X, Xi Z, Yan Y Adverse effects of carba-mazepine, phenytoin, valproate and lamotrigine mono-therapy in epileptic adult Chinese patients. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112(4):291-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2009.12.014
Sánchez S, Rincon F. Status Epilepticus: Epidemiology and Public Health Needs. J Clin Med. 2016;5(8):71. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5080071
Penberthy LT, Towne A, Garnett LK, Perlin JB, DeLorenzo RJ. Estimating the economic burden of status epilepticus to the health care system. Seizure. 2005;14(1):46-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2004.06.001
Kortland LM, Alfter A, Bãhr O, Carl B, Dodel R, Freiman TM, et al. Costs and cost-driving factors for acute treatment of adults with status epilepticus: A multicenter cohort study from Germany. Epilepsia. 2016;7(12):2056-66. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.13584
Trinka E, Hõfler J, Zerbs A. Causes of status epilepticus. Epilepsia.2012;53 (Suppl 4):127-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03622.x
Genton P, Thomas P, Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenité DG, Medina MT, Salas-Puig J. Clinical aspects of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;28(Suppl 1):S8-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2012.10.034
Davis R, Dalmau J. Autoimmunity, seizures, and status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2013;548(Suppl 6):46-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12276
Varelas PN, Spanaki MV, Mirski MA. Status epilepticus: an update. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2013;13(7):357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-013-0357-0
Dulac O, Takahashi T. Status epilepticus. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:681-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00070-1
Abend NS, Bearden D, Helbig I, McGuire J, Narula S, Panzer JA, et al. Status epilepticus and refractory status epilepticus management. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2014;21(4):263-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spen.2014.12.006
Wusthoff CJ. Diagnosing neonatal seizures and status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2013;30(2):115-21. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNP.0b013e3182872932
Freilich ER1, Schreiber JM, Zelleke T, Gaillard WD. Pediatric status epilepticus: identification and evaluation. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2014; 26(6):655-61. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0000000000000152
Khoujah D, Abraham MK. Status Epilepticus: What's New?. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2016;34(4):759-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emc.2016.06.012
Gorter JA, van Vliet EA, Aronica E. Status epilepticus, blood-brain barrier disruption, inflammation, and epileptogenesis. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:13-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.04.047
Hantus S. Epilepsy Emergencies. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2016; 22(1 Epilepsy): 173-90. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000285
Rahman S. Pathophysiology of mitochondrial disease causing epilepsy and status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:71-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.05.003
Read MI, Andreianova AA, Harrison JC, Goulton CS, Sammut IA, Kerr DS. Cardiac electrographic and morphological changes following status epilepticus: effect of clonidine. Seizure. 2014;23(1):55-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2013.09.012
Szczurowska E, Mares P. NMDA and AMPA receptors: development and status epilepticus. Physiol Res. 2013;62(Suppl 1):S21-38.
Hocker S. Systemic complications of status epilepticus--An update. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:83-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.04.024
Walker MC, Williams RS. New experimental therapies for status epilepticus in preclinical development. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:290-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.06.009
Lietsche J, Imran I, Klein J. Extracellular levels of ATP and acetylcholine during lithium-pilocarpine induced status epi-lepticus in rats. Neurosci Lett. 2016;611:69-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2015.11.028
Vinet J, Vainchtein ID, Spano C, Giordano C, Bordini D, Curia G, et al. Microglia are less pro-inflammatory than myeloid infiltrates in the hippocampus of mice exposed to status epiticus. Glia. 2016;64(8):1350-62. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23008
Sinha S, Satishchandra P, Mahadevan A, Bhimani BC, Kovur JM, Shankar SK. Fatal status epilepticus: a clinico-pathological analysis among 100 patients: from a developing country perspective. Epilepsy Res. 2010;91(2-3):193-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2010.07.012
Santamarina E, Gonzalez M, Toledo M, Sueiras M, Guzman L, Rodríguez N, et al. Prognosis of status epilepticus (SE): Relationship between SE duration and subsequent development of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2015; 49:138-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.04.059
Reddy DS, Kuruba R. Experimental models of status epi-lepticus and neuronal injury for evaluation of therapeutic interventions. Int J Mol Sci. 2013;14(9):18284-318. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms140918284
Read MI, McCann DM, Millen RN, Harrison JC, Kerr DS, Sammut IA. Progressive development of cardiomyopathy following altered autonomic activity in status epilepticus. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2015; 309(9):H1554-64. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00256.2015
Huff JS, Fountain NB. Pathophysiology and definitions of seizures and status epilepticus. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2011;29(1):1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emc.2010.08.001
Jiang W, Wang X, Zhou S. Rhabdomyolysis induced by antiepi-leptic drugs: characteristics, treatment and prognosis. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2016;15(3):357-65. https://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.2016.1139572.
Winocour PH, Waise A, Young G, Moriarty KJ. Severe, self-limiting lactic acidosis and rhabdomyolysis accompanying convulsions. Postgrad Med J. 1989;65(763):321-2.
Holtkamp M, Schmitt FC, Buchheim K, Meierkord H. Temperature regulation is compromised in experimental limbic status epilepticus. Brain Res. 2007;1127(1):76-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2006.10.034
Santiago JF, Carvalho FF, Perosa SR, Siliano MR, Cruz JW, Fernandes MJ, et al. Effect of glycemic state in rats submitted to status epilepticus during development. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2006;64(2A):233-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-282X2006000200012
Kilbride RD, Reynolds AS, Szaflarski JP, Hirsch LJ. Clinical outcomes following prolonged refractory status epilepticus (PRSE). Neurocrit Care. 2013; 18(3):374-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12028-013-9823-4
Betjemann JP, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2015;14(6):615-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00042-3
Ladino LD, Voll A, Dash D, Sutherland W, Hernández-Ronquillo L, Téllez-Zenteno JF, Moien-Afshari F. StatNet Electroencephalogram: A Fast and Reliable Option to Diagnose Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus in Emergency Setting. Can J Neurol Sci. 2016;43(2):254-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cjn.2015.391
Wilson CA. Continuous electroencephalogram detection of non-convulsive seizures in the pediatric intensive care unit: review of the utility and impact on management and outcomes. Transl Pediatr. 2015;4(4):283-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2224-4336.2015.10.02
Beleza P, Rocha J, Pinho J. Diagnosis, Etiology, and Treatment of Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus, a Semiological Oriented Review. Neurologist. 2015;19(6):160-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/NRL.0000000000000031
Gosavi TD, See SJ, Lim SH. Ictal and interictal EEG patterns in patients with nonconvulsive and subtle convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:263-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.05.011
Brenner JM, Kent P, Wojcik SM, Grant W Rapid diagnosis of nonconvulsive status epilepticus using reduced-lead electroencephalography. West J Emerg Med. 2015;16(3):442-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2015.3.24137
Lorenzo-Ruiz M, Miguel-Martin B, García-Pérez A, Martínez-Granero MA, Aguilera-Albesa S, Yoldi-Petri ME, et al. Electrical status epilepticus during sleep: a retrospective multi-centre study of 29 cases. Rev Neurol. 2015; 60(3):99-107.
Perrig S, Jallon P. Is the first seizure truly epileptic? Epilepsia. 2008;49 (Suppl 1):2-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01442.x
Dickinson P, Looper KJ. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a current overview. Epilepsia. 2012;53(10):1679-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03606.x
Prasad M, Babiker MO. Fifteen-minute consultation: when is a seizure not a seizure? Part 1, the younger child. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed. 2016; 101(1):15-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2015-30834
Al-Mufti F, Claassen J. Neurocritical care: status epilepticus review. Crit Care Clin. 2014;30(4):751-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccc.2014.06.006
Lyons TW, Johnson KB, Michelson KA, Nigrovic LE, Lodden-kemper T, Prabhu SP, et al. Yield of emergent neuroimaging in children with new-onset seizure and status epilepticus. Seizure. 2016;35:4-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2015.12.009
Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, Alldredge B, Bleck TP, Glauser T, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012;17(1):3-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12028-012-9695-z
Hirsch LJ, Gaspard N. Status epilepticus. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2013; 19(3 Epilepsy):767-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000431395.16229.5a
Wirrell E. Infantile, Childhood, and Adolescent Epilepsies. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2016; 22(1 Epilepsy): 60-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000269.
Bleck TP. Status epilepticus and the use of continuous EEG monitoring in the intensive care unit. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2012;18(3):560-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000415428.61277.90
Leitinger M, Kalss G, Rohracher A, Pilz G, Novak H, Hõfler J, et al. Predicting outcome of status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:126-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.04.066
Goyal MK, Chakravarthi S, Modi M, Bhalla A, Lal V. Status epilepticus severity score (STESS): A useful tool to predict outcome of status epilepticus. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2015;139:96-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2015.09.010
Ferlisi M, Hocker S, Grade M, Trinka E, Shorvon S; International Steering Committee of the StEp Audit. Preliminary results of the global audit of treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:318-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.04.010
Arik Y, Leijten FS, Seute T, Robe PA, Snijders TJ. Prognosis and therapy of tumor-related versus non-tumor-related status epi-lepticus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Neurol. 2014;14:152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-14-152
Gaspard N, Foreman BP, Alvarez V, Cabrera Kang C, Probasco JC, Jongeling AC, et al. New-onset refractory status epilepticus: Etiology, clinical features, and outcome. Neurology. 2015;85(18):1604-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001940
Cuero MR, Varelas PN. Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2015;15(11):74. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s11910-015-0594-5.
Lapenta L, Frisullo G, Vollono C, Brunetti V, Giannantoni NM, Sandroni C, et al. Super-Refractory Status Epilep-ticus: Report of a Case and Review of the Literature. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2015;46(4):335-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1550059414534418
Tufenkjian K, Lüders HO. Seizure semiology: its value and limitations in localizing the epileptogenic zone. J Clin Neurol. 2012;8(4): 243-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3988/jcn.2012.8.4.243
Legriel S, Brophy GM. Managing Status Epilepticus in the Older Adult. J Clin Med. 2016;5(5).pii: E53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm5050053
Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D, Alldredge B, Arya R, Bain-bridge J, Bare M, et al. Evidence-Based Guideline: Treatment of Convulsive Status Epilepticus in Children and Adults: Report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016;16(1):48-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5698/1535-7597-16.1.48
National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK). The Epilepsies: The Diagnosis and Management of the Epilepsies in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care: Pharmacological Update of Clinical Guideline 20. London: Royal College of Physicians (UK); 2012 Jan.
Sánchez-Carpintero R, Camino R, Smeyers P, Raspall-Chaure M, Martínez-Bermejo A, Ruiz-Falcó ML, et al. Uso benzo-diacepinas en crisis prolongadas y estado epiléptico en la comunidad. An Pediatr (Barc) 2014; 81(6):400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anpedi.2014.03.023
Silbergleit R, Durkalski V, Lowenstein D, Conwit R, Pancioli A, Palesch Y, Barsan W, NETT Investigators. Intramuscular versus intravenous therapy for prehospital status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(7):591-600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1107494
Welch RD, Nicholas K, Durkalski-Mauldin VL, Lowenstein DH, Conwit R, Mahajan PV, Lewandowski C, Silbergleit R. Neurological Emergencies Treatment Trials (NETT) Network Investigators. Intramuscular midazolam versus intravenous lorazepam for the prehospital treatment of status epilepticus in the pediatric population. Epilepsia. 2015;56(2): 254-62.
Alvarez V, Lee JW, Drislane FW, Westover MB, Novy J, Dworetzky BA, et al. Practice variability and efficacy of clonazepam, lorazepam, and midazolam in status epilepticus: A multicenter comparison. Epilepsia. 2015; 56(8):1275-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/epi.13056
Arya R, Kothari H, Zhang Z, Han B, Horn PS, Glauser TA. Efficacy of nonvenous medications for acute convulsive seizures: A network meta-analysis. Neurology. 2015;85(21):1859-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002142
Trinka E, Hõfler J, Zerbs A, Brigo F. Efficacy and safety of intravenous valproate for status epilepticus: a systematic review. CNS Drugs. 2014 Jul;28(7):623-39. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s40263-014-0167-1
Limdi NA, Shimpi AV, Faught E, Gomez CR, Burneo JG. Efficacy of rapid IV administration of valproic acid for status epilepticus. Neurology. 2005;64(2): 353-5. http://dx.doi. org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000149527.47600.5A
Alvarez V, Januel JM, Burnand B, Rossetti AO. Second-line status epilepticus treatment: comparison of phenytoin, valproate, and levetiracetam. Epilepsia. 2011;52(7):1292-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03056.x
Lang N, Esser W, Evers S, Kellinghaus C, Nguento A, Schlegel U, et al. Intravenous levetiracetam in clinical practice-Results from an independent registry. Seizure. 2015;29:109-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2015.03.018
Mundlamuri RC, Sinha S, Subbakrishna DK, Prathyusha PV, Nagappa M, Bindu PS, et al. Management of generalised convulsive status epilepticus (SE): A prospective randomised controlled study of combined treatment with intravenous lorazepam with either phenytoin, sodium valproate or levetiracetam-Pilot study. Epilepsy Res. 2015;114:52-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2015.04.013
Chamberlain JM, Okada P, Holsti M, Mahajan P, Brown KM, Vance C, et al. Lorazepam vs diazepam for pediatric status epi-lepticus: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;311(16):1652-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.2625
Rantsch K, Walter U, Wittstock M, Benecke R, Rõsche J. Treatment and course of different subtypes of status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res. 2013; 107(1-2):156-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2013.08.001
Poplawska M, Borowicz KK, Czuczwar SJ. The safety and efficacy of fosphenytoin for the treatment of status epilepticus. Expert Rev Neurother 2015;15(9): 983-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14737175.2015.1074523
Crespel A, Gelisse P, Reed RC, Ferlazzo E, Jerney J, Schmitz B, Genton P. Management of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;28(Suppl 1):S81-6. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2013.01.001
Trinka E, Hõfler J, Leitinger M, Rohracher A, Kalss G, Brigo F. Pharmacologic treatment of status epilepticus. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2016;17(4):513-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2016.1127354
Rossetti AO, Bleck TP. What's new in status epilepticus?. Intensive Care Med. 2014;40(9):1359-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.emc.2016.06.012
González-Cuevas M, Toledo-Argany M, Santamarina-Pérez E, Salas-Puig J. Protocolo terapéutico de la crisis epiléptica y del estatus epiléptico en Urgencias. Medicine - Programa de Formación Médica Continuada Acreditado 2015;11(3):4404-4408.
: Dubey D, Kalita J, Misra UK. Status epilepticus: Refractory and super-refractory. Neurol India. 2017;65(Supplement): S12-S17. doi: 10.4103/neuroindia.NI_958_16.
Lõscher W. Single versus combinatorial therapies in status epi-lepticus: Novel data from preclinical models. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:20-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.02.027
Chakravarthi S, Goyal MK, Modi M, Bhalla A, Singh P. Levetiracetam versus phenytoin in management of status epilepticus. J Clin Neurosci. 2015; 22(6):959-63. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.jocn.2014.12.013
Zaccara G, Giannasi G, Oggioni R, Rosati E, Tramacere L, Palumbo P; Convulsive status epilepticus study group of the uslcentro Toscana, Italy. Challenges in the treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Seizure 2017; 47:17-24. doi: 10.1016/j.seizure.2017.02.015
Navarro V, Dagron C, Elie C, Lamhaut L, Demeret S, Urien S, et al. Prehospital treatment with levetiracetam plus clon-azepam or placebo plus clonazepam in status epilepticus (SAMUKeppra): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15(1):47-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00296-3
Trinka E, Brigo F, Shorvon S. Recent advances in status epi-lepticus. Curr Opin Neurol. 2016;29(2):189-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000307.
Friedman D, Devinsky O. Cannabinoids in the Treatment of Epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(1):94-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1512758
Mauri Yerda JA, Suller Marti A, de la Peña Mayor P, Martinez M, Poza Aldea JJ, Gómez Alonzo L, et al. Guía oficial de la Sociedad Españo la de Neurología de práctica clínica en epilepsia. Epilepsia en situaciones especiales: comorbilidades, mujer y anciano. Neurología 2015. En prensa.
Niranjan S, Kumar P, Kumar V, Charan S, Kumar A. Management of Epilepsy During Pregnancy. J Pharm Res.2011;4 (11):4181-83.
Ruiz-Giménez J, Sánchez-Alvarez JC, Cañadillas-Hidalgo F, Serrano-Castro PJ. Andalusian. Epilepsy Society. Antiepileptic treatment in patients with epilepsy and other comorbidities. Seizure. 2010;19(7):375-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sei-zure.2010.05.008
Birbeck GL, French JA, Perucca E, Simpson DM, Fraimow H, George JM, et al. Antiepileptic drug selection for people with HIV/AIDS: evidence-based guidelines from the ILAE and AAN. Epilepsia. 2012; 53(1): 207-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03335.x
Abou-Khalil BW. Antiepileptic Drugs. Continuum (Minneap Minn).2016; 22(1 Epilepsy):132-56.
Walker MC, Williams RS. New experimental therapies for status epilepticus in preclinical development. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;49:290-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.06.009
Farias-Moeller R, Bartolini L, Pasupuleti A, Brittany Cines RD, Kao A, Carpenter JL. A Practical Approach to Ketogenic Diet in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit for Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2016;26(2):267-272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-016-0312-4
Cervenka MC, Hocker S, Koenig M, Bar B, Henry-Barron B, Kossoff EH, et al. Phase I/II multicenter ketogenic diet study for adult superrefractory status epilepticus. Neurology. 2017;88(10):938-943. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/ WNL.0000000000003690
Legriel S, Lemiale V, Schenck M, Chelly J, Laurent V, Daviaud F, et al. Hypothermia for Neuroprotection in Convulsive Status Epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 2016; 375(25):2457-2467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1608193
Zeiler FA, Matuszczak M, Teitelbaum J, Kazina CJ, Gillman LM. Plasmapheresis for refractory status epilepticus, part I: A scoping systematic review of the adult literature. Seizure. 2016;43:14-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sei-zure.2016.10.012
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.